Side-by-Side Comparison of 2013 Senate Immigration Framework with 2006 and 2007 Senate Legislation
The Migration Policy Institute has completed an analysis of the major provisions in the 2013 framework, comparing them to provisions of the legislation the Senate considered in 2006 and 2007.
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Immigration Reform: A Long Road to Citizenship and Insurance Coverage
In an article in the April issue of Health Affairs, Migration Policy Institute Senior Policy Analyst Randy Capps and Senior Vice President Michael Fix examine the key questions surrounding legalization and the Affordable Care Act (ACA). With Congress poised to consider a major overhaul of US immigration laws and legalization for many of the nation’s unauthorized immigrants, how legalization affects implementation of the ACA is a key policy question. The article examines current coverage rates for unauthorized immigrants, eligibility for coverage under expansion of Medicaid, the distribution of costs of uncompensated care, and options for covering those who will remain uninsured under ACA.
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Legal Immigration Policies for Low-Skilled Foreign Workers
The current US legal immigration system includes few visas for low-skilled workers, and employers have relied heavily on an unauthorized workforce in many low-skilled occupations. This issue brief explains the questions that policymakers must grapple with when designing programs for admission of low-skill workers, for temporary as well as permanent entry. The brief focuses in part on the recent agreement by the US Chamber of Commerce and AFL-CIO regarding admission of future low-skilled workers.
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Mexican Migration to the United States: Underlying Economic Factors and Possible Scenarios for Future Flows
By Daniel Chiquiar and Alejandrina Salcedo
The recent history of Mexican migration to the United States is one marked by high flows during the 1990s that reached a peak in 2000 and then dropped, plummeting sharply with softening of the US construction sector in 2007 and onset of the recession the following year. What will migration from Mexico to the United States look like in the future? This report by two economists examines economic factors that have influenced contemporary flows and offers scenarios on how such flows could evolve over the next several years.
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Unauthorized Immigrant Parents and Their Children’s Development
By Hirokazu Yoshikawa and Jenya Kholoptseva
According to recent estimates, 5.5 million children in the United States — all but 1 million of them US-born — reside with at least one unauthorized immigrant parent. Given that they constitute about 8 percent of all US children, their well-being holds important implications for US society. Emerging research suggests that having an unauthorized immigrant parent is associated with lower cognitive skills in early childhood, lower levels of general positive development in middle childhood, higher levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms during adolescence, and fewer years of schooling. This report, co-authored by the Academic Dean of Harvard Graduate School of Education, explores the research and suggests policies and programs to reduce or mitigate these developmental risks.
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Immigrants in a Changing Labor Market: Responding to Economic Needs
Edited by Michael Fix, Demetrios G. Papademetriou, and Madeleine Sumption
This volume, which brings together research by leading economists and labor market specialists, examines the role immigrants play in the U.S. workforce, how they fare in good and bad economic times, and the effects they have on native-born workers and the labor sectors in which they are engaged. The book traces the powerful economic forces at play in today’s globalized world and includes policy prescriptions for making the American immigration system more responsive to labor market needs.
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Going to the Back of the Line: A Primer on Lines, Visa Categories, and Wait Times
By Claire Bergeron
Contrary to popular belief, there is not one “line” that leads to lawful permanent residence; current immigration law provides multiple paths to permanent residency. This brief, the first in a new series of issue briefs related to the ongoing comprehensive immigration reform debate, examines who is in the “line,” what are the various visa categories involved in family- and employment-based immigration, wait times, countries most affected by the backlogs, and more. The brief, and MPI’s extensive research and data offerings that are directly on point to the current debate, can be found at a new online resource: www.migrationpolicy.org/cir.
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American Prospect cover article: The Fundamentals of Immigration Reform
By Demetrios G. Papademetriou
In the cover story in the March/April 2013 edition of The American Prospect magazine¸ MPI’s President tackles some of the major challenges Congress must resolve if it is to create an immigration system in the national interest — now and for the future. The article also provides an overview of the policies, politics, and errors of omission and commission that have created the antiquated, inflexible immigration system that the United States has today.
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The Netherlands: From National Identity to Plural Identifications
By Monique Kremer
National identity has become a highly politicized issue in the Netherlands in the past decade, with many public figures voicing different opinions on what it means to be “Dutch.” Both right-wing and mainstream parties have adopted political rhetoric that appeals to the public’s growing anxiety about immigrants and their effect on local communities, and many have proposed policies designed to mitigate these fears. This new dialogue has marked a turn away from multiculturalism and a turn toward “culturalized citizenship” — the idea that being Dutch means adhering to a certain set of cultural and social norms and practices.
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Immigration and National Identity in Norway
By Thomas Hylland Eriksen
The number of immigrants and their descendants in Norway almost tripled between 1995 and 2011, resulting in increased debates about integration, immigration policy, multiculturalism, and national identity in recent years. The atrocities of July 2011 revealed an active, militantly anti-immigrant (particularly anti-Muslim) fringe that sees government’s acceptance of cultural pluralism as treacherous. This report assesses the connection between the recent rise of resentment against immigration and broader trends in Norwegian nationalism, and proposes a few policy recommendations with the aim of minimizing this rift in Norwegian society.
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Identity and (Muslim) Integration in Germany
By Naika Foroutan
Germany has become a country of immigration in recent decades, with one-fifth of its population comprised of immigrants and their children. Yet a dominant perception in public discourse and media is that of a homogenous German society in which those with a migration background cannot fully belong. This country case study explores how immigration influences national identity in Germany and the reciprocal influence that German national identity has on immigrants.
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Exceptional in Europe? Spain’s Experience with Immigration and Integration
By Joaquín Arango
Spain’s immigrant population increased from less than 4 percent of the country’s overall population to almost 14 percent in the span of one short decade. Unlike other European countries, however, Spain has not experienced a significant backlash against immigration, even amid an economic crisis that has hit the country hard and led to high levels of unemployment. This country case study from MPI’s Transatlantic Council on Migration explains Spain’s enduring openness to immigration and immigrants.
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Strengthening Health Systems in North and Central America: What Role for Migration?
By Allison Squires and Hiram Beltrán-Sánchez
International nurse migration is a multibillion-dollar global phenomenon. Historically, Mexicans and Central Americans have not played a significant part in the migration of nurses to the United States. This report examines the health care sector in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and the United States, reviewing their health care systems, demand for services, epidemiological profiles, and demographics. Using migration to meet health care demand is complex; it does, however, hold the potential for benefits to health care systems, economies, and patient outcomes.
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Immigration Enforcement in the United States: The Rise of a Formidable Machinery
By Doris Meissner, Donald M. Kerwin, Muzaffar Chishti, and Claire Bergeron
The US government spends more on federal immigration enforcement than on all other principal federal criminal law enforcement agencies combined, and has allocated nearly $187 billion for immigration enforcement since 1986. Deportations have reached record highs, border apprehensions 40-year lows, and more noncitizens than ever before are in immigration detention. The report traces the evolution of the immigration enforcement system, particularly in the post-9/11 era, in terms of budgets, personnel, enforcement actions, and technology – analyzing how individual programs and policies have resulted in a complex, interconnected, cross-agency system.
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Manufacturing in the United States, Mexico, and Central America: Implications for Competitiveness and Migration
By Peter A. Creticos and Eleanor Sohnen
The manufacturing sector is a significant source of employment for workers from Mexico and Central America's Northern Triangle — with an estimated 17 percent employed in manufacturing in Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, and immigrants from these countries making up 8 percent of the US manufacturing workforce. This report examines how aggressive manufacturing-attraction strategies have benefited the economies of Mexico, and to a lesser extent, the Northern Triangle. Yet the achievements of the maquiladora development strategy have masked important flaws that threaten to stymie the promise of even greater economic growth. The report outlines the need for the regional workforce to gain the skills to compete with counterparts in advanced manufacturing regions such as northern Europe and Japan, as well as for credentialing standards, training systems, and outcome measures that are comparable to those in industrialized economies.
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Crime and Violence in Mexico and Central America: An Evolving but Incomplete US Policy Response
By Andrew Selee, Cynthia J. Arnson, and Eric L. Olson
Amid dramatic increases in crime and violence in Mexico and Central America, the US government has significantly increased its attention to public security issues in the region since 2007, with the Merida Initiative and the Central American Regional Security Initiative. The US policy response has been hampered to an extent, however, by US and regional obstacles. The authors suggest the policy emphasis has begun to shift in important ways, with more attention paid to addressing the citizen security crisis — a move away from  the earlier near-total focus on combating drug trafficking and transnational crime.
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In the Lurch between Government and Chaos: Unconsolidated Democracy in Mexico
By Luis Rubio
Democratic transitions in Mexico and parts of Central America over the past two decades have tested the limits of their governing institutions, with old-regime institutions not being overhauled to keep pace with modern, complex challenges. The old mechanisms to control and contain crime and violence have proven too primitive; organized crime has taken over key activities and corruption has become more entrenched at various levels of government. The challenge is to build modern, competent democratic institutions capable of engaging in good governance.
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Paying for Crime: A Review of the Relationships between Insecurity and Development in Mexico and Central America
By Eleanor Sohnen
Crime and insecurity are undermining economic and social prosperity in Mexico and Central America by diverting public and private resources away from productive uses, as well as eroding the public trust in government institutions that is critical to sustain healthy societies. This report examines the economic, social, and political costs resulting from insecurity in the region, as well as implications for the future.
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Transnational Crime in Mexico and Central America: Its Evolution and Role in International Migration
By Steven Dudley
The growth of organized crime in Mexico and Central America has dramatically increased the risks that migrants face as they attempt to cross the region. Encountering rising threats posed by Mexican drug traffickers, Central American gangs, and corrupt government officials, migrants increasingly are forced to seek the assistance of intermediaries known as polleros, or “coyotes.” Those unable to afford a coyote are more likely to be abused or kidnapped, and held for ransom along the way.
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Engaging the Asian Diaspora
By Dovelyn Rannveig Agunias and Kathleen Newland
This brief explores how governments in Asia are facilitating diaspora contributions, including creation of conducive legal frameworks and diaspora-centered institutions to initiation of programs that specifically target diasporas as development actors. The authors detail a number of legislative proposals geared at diasporas, including flexible citizenship laws and visa arrangements, political and property rights, and reduced income tax rates.
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Border Insecurity in Central America’s Northern Triangle
By Ralph Espach and Daniel Haering
Governments in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras have historically neglected their borders, with Mexican-based trafficking cartels the latest to take advantage of the uncontrolled borders. The authors outline the long-standing pattern of government inattention to the borders  – probing root causes that range from institutional, economic, and resource challenges to corruption and weak government structures. Arguing that a focus on the borders per se is misleading, the authors sketch a number of policy recommendations, including the need to focus on providing state services to the neglected areas.
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New Approaches to Migration Management in Mexico and Central America
By Francisco Alba and Manuel Ángel Castillo
Migration has emerged as a critical policy issue for Mexico and Central America during the past three decades. This report traces the history of migration and transmigration trends and policy in Mexico and Central America, and examines Mexico’s sweeping 2011 immigration law and implementation challenges.
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Black Immigrant Mothers in Palm Beach County, Florida, and their Children's Readiness for School
By Lauren Rich, Julie Spielberger, and Angela Valdovinos D'Angelo
This report, which draws on a unique, six-year longitudinal study of Palm Beach County and distressed areas within the county, examines parenting, child care enrollment, and other factors that encourage early school success, comparing Black immigrant, Latina immigrant, and Black native-born mothers, as well as the early developmental outcomes of their children. The authors find that kindergarten-age children of Black immigrants have significantly higher odds of being ready for school, as measured by the county's kindergarten readiness assessment, than children of Latina immigrants or Black natives living in the focal areas.
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Patterns and Predictors of School Readiness and Early Childhood Success among Young Children in Black Immigrant Families
By Danielle A. Crosby and Angel S. Dunbar
This report examines levels of school readiness among young children by race/ethnicity and nativity, helping fill a significant gap in knowledge about the early childhood experiences of young children in Black immigrant families. Using a nationally representative US birth-cohort study (the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort), the authors identify the contextual factors - such as family circumstances, parenting practices, and enrollment in center-based child care - that encourage early school success.
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Strengthening Pre-Departure Orientation Programmes in Indonesia, Nepal and the Philippines
By Maruja M.B. Asis and Dovelyn Rannveig Agunias
With overseas employment a more permanent feature of the development strategies of a number of Asian states, predeparture orientation programs have emerged as an important tool for the protection of migrant workers. This brief examines the strengths, limitations, and areas for improvement of this intervention, based on findings from field research conducted in Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines.
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Parenting Behavior, Health, and Cognitive Development among Children in Black Immigrant Families: Comparing the United States and the United Kingdom
By Margot Jackson
Racial disparities in child development in the United States are significant, with a particularly pronounced disadvantage among Black children. This report focuses on the development of children of Black immigrants, comparing against the outcomes for their peers in native-born and other immigrant families. The report also compares children in the United States to those in the United Kingdom, where there is a large Black immigrant population but a notably different policy context of reception.
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The 2012 Winners of MPI’s E Pluribus Unum Prizes for Exceptional Immigrant Integration Initiatives

MPI is pleased to announce the winners of its 2012 E Pluribus Unum Prizes: ACCESS (Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services), a Michigan-based Arab American organization that strengthens ties between immigrant and native-born communities; Building Skills Partnership, a California labor-business alliance that provides on-the-job English language and other classes for janitors; and Californians Together, a California education coalition that has achieved significant instructional reform for English language learners. Each was given a $50,000 award. The Prizes’ Corporate Leadership Award was given to Citi Community Development, which supports citizenship promotion for eligible legal immigrants and economic empowerment.

Press Release | Awards Event Program | ACCESS | Building Skills Partnership | Californians Together | Citi Community Development

Black and Immigrant: Exploring the Effects of Ethnicity and Foreign-Born Status on Infant Health
By Tiffany L. Green
The birth experiences and prenatal behaviors of Black immigrant mothers have received relatively little attention. This report compares prenatal behaviors and birth outcomes of Black immigrant mothers to those of other immigrant and US-born mothers, using federal vital statistics. It finds that Black immigrant mothers are less likely to give birth to preterm or low-birth-weight infants than US-born Black women, yet are more likely to experience these adverse birth outcomes than other groups of immigrant and US-born women.
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The Economic Value of Citizenship for Immigrants in the United States
By Madeleine Sumption and Sarah Flamm
Beyond imparting political and social rights, naturalization appears to confer economic gains for immigrants in the United States, with a wage premium of at least 5 percent – even after accounting for the fact that naturalized immigrants have higher levels of education, better language skills, and more work experience in the United States than noncitizens. More than 8 million legal immigrants in the United States are eligible to apply for citizenship but have not done so. Naturalization rates in the United States are lower than most other Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, the report notes.
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Regulating Private Recruitment in the Asia-Middle East Labour Migration Corridor
By Dovelyn Rannveig Agunias
The Middle East represents one of the most sought-after labor markets in the world, with an estimated 10 million contract workers (mostly Asian) in the Gulf states alone. The vast majority of this temporary labor movement is brokered by recruitment agencies, with oversight difficult. This brief examines how sometimes unscrupulous agencies take advantage of the migrants they purport to serve by charging excessive placement fees and offering expensive predeparture loans; it also outlines the available policy levers for regulating recruitment practices.
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Relief from Deportation: Demographic Profile of the DREAMers Potentially Eligible under the Deferred Action Policy
By Jeanne Batalova and Michelle Mittelstadt
As many as 1.76 million unauthorized immigrants under age 31 who were brought to the United States as children, a population known as DREAMers, could gain a two-year reprieve from deportation, according to updated MPI estimates that reflect more detailed eligibility guidelines for the deferred action policy being implemented by the Department of Homeland Security. The Fact Sheet offers estimates on the age, educational attainment, state of residence, country and region of birth, workforce participation, and gender of prospective beneficiaries.
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Understanding Mexico’s Economic Underperformance
By Gordon H. Hanson
Despite major economic reforms, fiscal discipline, privatization of state-owned enterprise, and strong growth in foreign trade and investment during recent decades, Mexico has underperformed economically relative to comparably situated nations. The report presents four arguments as to why Mexico has not sustained higher rates of economic growth: poorly functioning credit markets that inhibit long-term growth; unbalanced incentives toward informality in the labor market; inefficient regulation that diminishes the country’s comparative industrial advantage; and international competition, especially with China, which undermines export strength. The author offers policymakers a road map to expand economic opportunities.
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Central American Development: Two Decades of Progress and Challenges for the Future
By Hugo Beteta
Central America has witnessed an extraordinary transformation over the past two decades: : from authoritarian governments and civil strife to democratically elected governments and peaceful political transitions; from rural-based populations to urban majorities; and from volatile, resource-dependent economies into stable global exporters. This report traces the gains in economic growth, trade integration, and reduction in poverty and inequality in Central America, but makes clear that important challenges remain — among them the region’s inability to generate sufficient employment to keep pace with demographic growth, persistently large income inequality, and a surge in violence and public insecurity.
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Contested Ground: Immigration in the United States
By Michael Jones-Correa
Though historically a country of immigrants, the United States has seen its demographic landscape altered in new and important ways as a result of the changing nature of immigration flows. In recent decades, immigration has come increasingly from Latin America and significant numbers of immigrants are unauthorized. The spread of immigration beyond traditional immigrant destinations to communities with little prior experience of migration has sparked anxiety among the American public. This report, part of a Transatlantic Council on Migration series on national identity in the age of migration, traces public sentiment and immigration policy developments of recent decades.
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Understanding ‘Canadian Exceptionalism’ in Immigration and Pluralism Policy
By Irene Bloemraad
Canada is far more open to, and optimistic about, immigration than the United States and countries in Europe, despite having a greater proportion of immigrants in its population than other Western countries. A frequently cited reason for this Canadian exceptionalism is Canada’s selection of most immigrants through a points system that admits people based on skills thought to contribute to the economy. Economic selection and a geography that discourages illegal immigration are not the only factors explaining Canada’s unique experience, however. This report, part of a Transatlantic Council on Migration series on national identity, examines Canadian national identity, public opinion,  immigration and immigrant integration policy, and multiculturalism.
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Asian Labour Migrants and Humanitarian Crises: Lessons From Libya
By Brian Kelly and Anita Jawadurovna Wadud
Often low-skilled and facing language and cultural barriers, migrants workers in conflict zones are generally more vulnerable than the native population, though are rarely the focus of attention by the media or international community. This brief examines the challenges and opportunities for state actors and international organizers assisting foreign workers caught in national conflicts, with the migration crisis of Libya’s 2011 civil war a model for amending the existing framework in regards to response, coordination, and how to address similar humanitarian situations in the future.
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MPI Releases Estimates of Unauthorized Immigrant Population Potentially Eligible for Prosecutorial Discretion
As many as 1.4 million unauthorized immigrants brought to the United States as children could gain relief from deportation under the Obama administration’s grant of deferred action, according to new MPI estimates for the nation and top states of residence.
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Asian Labour Migrants and Health: Exploring Policy Routes

Migrant health issues have risen on the agenda of policymakers in the Asia-Pacific region in recent years. The challenge now is how to translate the momentum generated at the highest levels of government into visible change on the ground. Many Asian migrant workers, especially those working under temporary contracts, continue to face challenges in accessing health facilities and services. The reasons for underutilization of health services, as this issue brief explores, include lack of health insurance, poverty, social exclusion, language and cultural differences, administrative hurdles and legal status.
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French National Identity and Integration: Who Belongs to the National Community?
By Patrick Simon
Since the mid-1980s, France has faced a contentious debate of crucial importance for immigrants and their descendents — defining what it means to be French. Though countries with rich histories of immigration have long accepted “dual belonging,” this concept has been criticized and perceived as at odds with a person’s commitment to French identity. A recent survey of French immigrants, however, shows that multiple allegiances are not an impediment to integration; it is possible to “feel French” and maintain links with a country of origin. However, because of external perceptions, native French citizens are far less likely to accept this adoption of French identity.
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Labour Migration from Colombo Process Countries: Good Practices, Challenges and Ways Forward
By Dovelyn Rannveig Agunias and Christine Aghazarm
This issue brief, the first in a series launched by MPI and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) that examines migration trends and issues in Asia, discusses labor migration from the 11 Colombo Process countries (which include China, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Vietnam). Since 2005, these countries have taken concrete steps to manage these labor flows and protect their citizens working abroad, particularly with respect to recruitment regulation and welfare protection. Despite the progress, however, the brief details a number of remaining challenges and highlights possible areas of focus for these governments.
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The Relationship Between Immigration and Nativism in Europe and North America
By Cas Mudde
Far-right parties across Europe are gaining momentum, as witnessed by their recent successes at the ballot box in Greece, France, and elsewhere. While immigration is thought to be a major factor fueling the parties’ rise, this report finds that although there is clearly a relationship, the connection is not as straightforward as is often assumed. The report examines the electoral performance of far-right parties in Europe and North America since 1980, finding that high levels of immigration do not automatically lead to more votes for radical-right parties.
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Profile of Immigrants in Napa County
By Randy Capps, Kristen McCabe, and Michael Fix
This report offers a comprehensive profile of immigration to Napa County, examining the important role that immigrant workers play in the Napa Valley’s wine-related sectors and their fiscal contributions and costs. The authors examine demographic changes in Napa County, tracing immigrants’ origins, economic well-being, education, residence and home ownership, tax payments and public expenditures, and more.
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Building a British Model of Integration in an Era of Immigration: Policy Lessons for Government
By Shamit Saggar and Will Somerville
Despite experiencing large-scale immigration flows and settlement over the past half century, the United Kingdom has not developed a formal integration program. Few public policies have specifically sought to advance immigrant integration, and the political debates surrounding immigrant integration have often been fraught and destabilizing, reflecting deep-seated ambivalence in British society about immigrants and immigration. The authors offer a menu of policy options and actions the government should consider to achieve a well-thought-out approach.
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Developing a Road Map for Engaging Diasporas in Development
By Dovelyn Rannveig Agunias and Kathleen Newland
Governments at both ends of the migration cycle increasingly are seeking ways to magnify the human capital and financial resources that emigrants and their descendants contribute to development in their countries of origin. This user-friendly handbook offers a strategic road map for governments in both origin and destination countries to build a constructive relationship with diasporas. The guide, a project of MPI and the International Organization for Migration, offers practical advice to policymakers and practitioners and details the wide range of institutions that governments worldwide have established to work with diasporas.
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MPI Celebrates its 10th Anniversary
From its roots as a project at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, MPI a little over a decade ago became the first stand-alone, independent think tank dedicated solely to the study of US and global migration policy and trends. Co-founded by Demetrios G. Papademetriou and Kathleen Newland, the Institute heads into its second decade squarely focused on its mission: to provide an evidence-based, pragmatic, nonideological approach to sound migration management and immigrant integration policymaking designed to benefit all stakeholders. At a gala celebration in Washington, MPI paid tribute to several visionaries in the US and international migration arenas: the lead sponsors of the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act, former Sen. Alan Simpson (R-WY) and former Rep. Ron Mazzoli (D-KY); Aryeh Neier, president of the Open Society Foundations; former Italian Prime Minister Giuliano Amato; and the founders of the OneVietnam Network, Uyen Nguyen and James Huy Bao.
Anniversary Details | MPI Accomplishments | Press Release

The Development and Fiscal Effects of Emigration on Mexico
By Raymundo Campos-Vazquez and Horacio Sobarzo
The economic consequences of emigration on migrants’ countries of origin have long been studied, yet the precise assessment of positive and negative impacts remains complex. This analysis finds that when the labor market effects and household income benefits of remittances are compiled into a model of the Mexican economy, Mexico’s fiscal balance appears to benefit from emigration – its GDP rising by 8.8 percent and tax collection by 7.4 percent.
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Changing Demography and Circumstances for Young Black Children in African and Caribbean Immigrant Families
By Donald J. Hernandez
This report, the first in a trio of reports from the Young Children of Black Immigrants research initiative, finds that the 813,000 children under the age of 10 who have Black immigrant parents generally fall in the middle of multiple well-being indicators, faring less well than Asian and white children but better than their native-born Black and Hispanic peers. The report examines their family structure, citizenship status, English proficiency, parental characteristics, poverty, housing, and access to social supports.
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Diverse Streams: African Migration to the United States
By Randy Capps, Kristen McCabe, and Michael Fix
Black African immigrants represent one of the fastest-growing segments of the US immigrant population, increasing by about 200 percent during the 1980s and 1990s and by 100 percent during the 2000s. This report finds African immigrants generally fare well on integration indicators, with college completion rates that greatly exceed those for most other immigrant groups and US natives. Despite higher levels of human capital, high employment rates, and strong English skills, African immigrants’ earnings lag those of the native born.
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A Demographic Profile of Black Caribbean Immigrants in the United States
By Kevin J.A. Thomas
Immigration from the Caribbean to the United States is a relatively recent phenomenon,  beginning largely after changes to US immigration law in 1965 that placed a new priority on family-based migration. This report finds that despite relatively low educational attainment, English-speaking Black Caribbean immigrants earn more than Black African immigrants. This earnings gap may be explained in part by the fact that Caribbean immigrants, who account for 1.7 million of the nation’s nearly 40 million immigrants, tend to have been in the United States longer.
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The Educational Trajectories of English Language Learners in Texas
By Stella M. Flores, Jeanne Batalova, and Michael Fix
English Language Learner (ELL) public school students who successfully complete English as a Second Language (ESL) or bilingual education programs within three years appear to fare better in meeting basic math and reading proficiency standards than long-term ELLs, according to analysis of a unique longitudinaldataset that tracks all Texas students from first grade through high school graduation and beyond. Interestingly, Hispanic ELLs who opt out of ESL or bilingual education programs in favor of English-only courses may be particularly disadvantaged in terms of college enrollment. 
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